Information about the computer zx spectrum search. History of the ZX Spectrum computer. ZX Spectrum - what is it

The development of the computer market in the 70s was in its early stages. The industry was still far from making this product mass-produced. Therefore, for the most part, computers were complex devices designed to perform any large-scale tasks. But by the end of the decade, people were asking the question: “Why not use these machines as an entertainment tool?” Their voices were heard, and some manufacturers began producing special kits for self-assembly of a gaming system. However, the disadvantages of this approach significantly outweighed its few advantages. Firstly, such sets were very difficult to find on sale. Secondly, even if this was possible, their cost was beyond reasonable limits. For the money that was asked for the set, it was quite possible to buy a good used car. And thirdly, there was frankly little software for such sets. Why would a user spend several thousand dollars on a computer that does not have a single cool application? In short, to develop the idea of creating a device for recreation and entertainment, a different approach was needed. One of them was proposed by the British company Sinclair Research, headed by Clive Sinclair.

Clive Sinclair

The company's idea was to create the most simple and accessible computer that would combine ease of learning and programming and, of course, a low price. This was supposed to solve the main problem of the above-mentioned PC building kits - the lack of a software base. Ease of operation would allow users to write numerous applications themselves. This is exactly the path that Sinclair Research took when developing its ZX Spectrum computer. However, before we begin to tell the story of the legend, we will pay a little attention to the history of Sinclair Research itself.

History of Sinclair Research

Clive Sinclair created a company called Sinclair Radionics in 1961. At first he had no partners - he developed his business alone. Clive was engaged in selling radio components by mail (Sinclair Radionics even produced several successful radio designs). At the same time, Sinclair tried to launch several innovative devices. For example, in 1970, a vinyl record player with an unusual design was introduced. Instead of the traditional round record support, it used a triangular structure with weights mounted on the tops. According to Sinclair, this reduced vibrations transmitted from the support to the playback head, and also prevented contamination of the vinyl record itself. However, almost no one showed interest in the development, and the device never reached store shelves. More precisely, to the post office counter of Sinclair himself.

The unfortunate fate of the unusual player was repeated by the Neoteric 60 Hi-Fi amplifier. At that time, competition in this segment was extremely high, and Sinclair tried to conquer the market with the help of unusual products, which was the Neoteric 60. However, the company was unlucky again - Hi-Fi -the amplifier sold very poorly.

Amplifier Neoteric 60

It may seem that the first decade of the company was marked exclusively by failed projects. However, the financial statements say otherwise: by 1971 the firm's annual turnover was £560,000 with a net profit of £90,000. At the same time, the company's staff was replenished with 50 new employees. Things were looking up.

The 1970s can easily be called the “calculator era” of Sinclair. At this time, the company released two models of pocket calculators. One of them became the first commercially successful product. This could not even be prevented by a large number of device shortcomings, including their unreliability. The second model was intended for a more serious market, but never gained a foothold in it. Initially, it was created simply as a device with an expanded set of functions, but Sinclair attempted to turn the gadget into an office computer, and this attempt failed miserably.

Sinclair calculator

Computer ZX80

In the second half of the 70s, Sinclair Research began developing an inexpensive household computer. Engineer Jim Westwood was responsible for the project. In 1980, the process of creating the device was completed. The ZX80 appeared. It was the world's first computer whose cost did not exceed hundreds of pounds. The ZX80 was also available for sale as a kit for self-assembly. This version actually cost £79.95.

The developers managed to achieve such a low price by simplifying the element base and using fairly primitive components. The then popular Zilog Z80 with a frequency of 3.25 MHz was used as the central processor. To be more precise, it is a clone of this “stone” produced by NEC. The crystal had several advantages. Not only was it low cost, but (due to its internal architecture) it required fewer logic chips. The amount of RAM was only 1 KB, but this was enough to run the programs the user needed. Plus, it was possible to install an additional 16 KB of RAM in the form of expansion cards. The ROM size was 4 KB, and the Sinclair BASIC programming language was already built into it. And to store written programs, ordinary tape recorders and audio cassettes were used.

This is what the ZX80 looked like

Interestingly, the ZX80 did not have a video controller. The image was formed with minimal participation of hardware - the operation was performed primarily through the software part. The main and very significant drawback of this approach was that the ZX80 was able to show a picture only in those moments when it was not busy executing the program. The screen would simply go blank before displaying the new graphics. By the way, the ZX80 specifications did not provide for the use of any special monitor; the screen was an ordinary TV, which was also a plus for ordinary users.

As for the “exterior” of the ZX80, the computer’s appearance was more reminiscent of a game console than a computer. It was a small white plastic box with a membrane keyboard on it, which had no symbols, only commands. The user simply pressed the register button and selected the appropriate BASIC command. This greatly simplified the process of writing programs.

Despite its shortcomings, the ZX80 became extremely successful. Of course, the cost of the gadget also played a major role in this. Already in the first months after the release, a queue formed to purchase the ZX80 and there was a shortage of devices, which Sinclair Research did not expect.

Computer ZX81

In 1981, the next generation of the computer, called the ZX81, was introduced. The price has been reduced even further, with the DIY kit now available for the ridiculous price of £49.95. The finished computer was slightly more expensive at £69.99, which was still cheaper than the equivalent ZX80 version. By the way, the ZX81 became the first Sinclair device that was sold not only by mail, but also through retail chains. As for the technical characteristics, the “heart” of the computer was the same NEC Z80 processor with a frequency of 3.25 MHz. The amount of RAM remained the same (1 KB), which caused particular dissatisfaction among users. Such a modest number of “brains” greatly limited the possibilities for creating new applications. Expansion cards that increased the RAM capacity to 16 KB could solve the problem, but the cost of some of them was comparable to the price of the ZX81 itself. The ROM capacity has increased to 8 KB, and the built-in Sinclair BASIC language has acquired support for floating point arithmetic.

ZX81 received a black body

Interestingly, the ZX81 again did not receive a video controller. To somehow compensate for its absence, Sinclair came up with two operating modes: slow and fast. In fast mode, the ZX81 performed the same as its predecessor, the ZX80. That is, while the program was running, the image disappeared from the screen. In slow mode, the screen did not go dark, but it took about 4 times longer to process the program code. Externally, the ZX81 was not much different from the ZX80. The plastic case of the computer became black, and the membrane keyboard, which received a slightly different key configuration, remained white for convenience.

As you already understood, the ZX81 received only minor changes. But even this was enough for the computer to sell 8 times more than the ZX80.

ZX Spectrum

The launch of the third generation of the ZX computer was planned for 1982. As they say, you quickly get used to good things, so even though the ZX81 offered decent functionality at a more than modest price, users expected new and innovative features from the computer with the working title ZX82. The main difference between the next generation computer was supposed to be support for color images, since the ZX80 and ZX81 only worked with monochrome images. This step was largely influenced by the widespread use of color televisions. In this regard, the name ZX82 was replaced by the saying ZX Spectrum.

On the hardware side, the ZX Spectrum has undergone several key changes. The central processor was still the Zilog Z80A, but its frequency was increased to 3.5 MHz. The volume of RAM and ROM increased to 16 KB each, and the amount of RAM could even be equal to 48 KB. Spectrum really learned how to work with color images thanks to the advent of a graphics controller. The video mode supported a resolution of 256x192 pixels and 8 colors with two brightness levels. One-bit audio output was also provided through the built-in speaker. In fact, it was an ordinary “squeaker” that beeped rhythmically in games. The appearance of the ZX Spectrum was slightly different from the design of the ZX80 and ZX81. The new computer received a different keyboard: the membrane was replaced by full rubber keys.

Programs were entered and loaded from a cassette recorder, which was connected to the computer. Some tapes even had some sort of digital protection. For example, a serial number was supplied with the game, which allowed it to be launched.

Spectrum turned out to be as successful as its predecessors. Starting prices for the computers continued to be affordable, with versions with 16 KB and 48 KB of RAM priced at £125 and £175 respectively. And a little later they were reduced to 99.95 and 129.95 pounds.

Subsequently, the ZX Spectrum received several updates. In June 1984, the ZX Spectrum+ computer went on sale. It differed from the regular version by the mandatory presence of 48 KB of RAM, as well as a new keyboard, which received an additional reset button. Despite such minor changes, the ZX Spectrum+ outsold the original model. However, some sellers complained about the unreliability of the device, claiming that the percentage of faulty computers reached as much as 30%.

ZX Spectrum+ computer

The ZX Spectrum 128, which appeared in 1986, was developed jointly with the Spanish company Investronica. The fact is that the Spanish government imposed a high tax on all imported computers with 64 KB of RAM and below that do not support the Spanish language. The entire European market was important to Sinclair, so together with Investronica the company began adapting Spectrum for Spain. The computer received support for 128 KB of RAM, 32 KB of ROM with an improved BASIC editor, three-channel audio via the AY-3-8910 standard, RGB monitor output and MIDI compatibility.

Also in 1986, all rights to the Spectrum brand and computers were transferred to Amstrad. New models received various suffixes: +2, +3, +2A, +2B. In terms of hardware, Amstrad computers received only minor modifications. For example, the ZX Spectrum +2 had a built-in Datacoder cassette recorder. And in the ZX Spectrum +3 the tape recorder was replaced with a floppy drive. Plus, this model was the first Spectrum that could run the CP/M operating system without additional equipment. She has become, perhaps, the most controversial in the entire line. Thus, the ZX Spectrum +3 RAM was mapped to 64 KB of address space, which led to incompatibility of some games written for the original ZX Spectrum.

Computer ZX Spectrum +2

About accessories for ZX Spectrum

However, it was not only the low cost that contributed to the growing popularity of the ZX Spectrum. A huge number of different “gadgets” were released for the computer, which significantly expanded the functionality of this computer. One of these devices was the ZX Printer, compatible not only with the Spectrum, but also with the ZX80 and ZX81. The device was connected to the computer using a system connector and used spark printing technology. This type of printing used special black paper coated with aluminum. The print head consisted of two closely spaced needles that moved across the width of the page. To print characters, tension was created between the needles, and they burned through the paper in the right place. There were 32 characters in total per line. The very idea of printing at home was truly revolutionary, but it was not possible to fully implement it in the ZX Printer due to the unreliability of the device. Plus, spark printing technology also did not show its best side: the print quality quickly decreased, and the paper surface was fragile.

Another interesting accessory was a loopback magnetic tape ROM module called the ZX Microdrive. The volume of such a device was 16 KB. It allowed you to quickly load or save a previously written program. However, the ZX Microdrive never received proper distribution. Users preferred to use time-tested, albeit slower, audio cassettes.

ZX Microdrive ROM module

Cassette for ZX Spectrum

Sinclair also presented expansion cards ZX Interface 1 and ZX Interface 2. Initially, the first was developed as a network interface for organizing a local network in schools. However, before the product was released, support for simultaneous operation of up to 8 ZX Microdrive devices was added, and subsequently the interface was used primarily to connect these ROM modules. As for the ZX Interface 2, this expansion card had connectors for connecting two joysticks (yes, Sinclair even produced a game joystick for the ZX Spectrum), a ROM cartridge connector and a ZX Printer connection interface. But due to the high cost, the device did not sell well, and a year later it disappeared from store shelves.

This is what ZX Interface 1 looked like

In addition, many accessories from third-party manufacturers could be found on sale. For example, devices such as a speech synthesizer (Currah Microspeech), game joysticks, additional digital keyboards, and even a graphics tablet and drum kit (Cheetah SpecDrum) were produced specifically for Spectrum. Impressive!

About the software

But, of course, it’s not the huge number of different peripherals that made people love the ZX Spectrum. The computer was relatively easy to program. In the first half of the 80s, this caused a real boom in the software industry. Both full-fledged companies and individual programmers were involved in writing programs. The development of the Western software market for the ZX Spectrum can be divided into three stages.

During the first stage, which lasted from 1982 to 1984, the market experienced quantitative growth. There were no large companies yet, and the creation of applications was carried out by small firms or single writers. Moreover, about 80% of the software were games! The first video entertainment was quite primitive: the graphic design was not very good, and neither was the plot. Interestingly, piracy began to flourish already at that time.

The third stage covered the years 1988-1993. This period marked the decline of the ZX Spectrum as a gaming platform. The computer was becoming obsolete, and users were switching to other systems. Developers also switched from Spectrum to more modern platforms. Nevertheless, many interesting games were released during these years. For example, over time a demo version of the legendary Doom was released. The computer's performance was not enough for the shooter to work quickly, so the "spectrum" variation used interlaced scanning, which removed every even line of pixels, which increased the speed of rendering scenes.

ZX Spectrum in Russia

The stages listed above do not apply to the post-Soviet space, since many computers (more precisely, their clones) came to the USSR only in the second half of the 80s. And unlike Western Europe, where, along with the ZX Spectrum, other computers (the same Atari and Commodore) sold well, in the country of the Soviets the Sinclair device was the sole sales leader. Why? The reason, first of all, lies in the low cost of the Spectrum: the computer was not subject to duties, so it was available to many Soviet citizens. Atari and Commodore computers traveled a long way before hitting the shelves of Soviet stores, and their prices were significantly higher. In addition, it turned out that most of the Spectrum parts, if necessary, could be replaced with domestic ones, which made the computer repairable. By and large, the only irreplaceable component of the system was the Z80 processor.

Domestic clone of ZX Spectrum

The software market also lagged behind the European one in its development. In the late 80s and early 90s, the vast majority of programs were imported from abroad, mainly through Poland. Naturally, there was no question of any copyrights - almost all the software was pirated. The percentage of licensed products was extremely small.

At first, the main occupation of programmers was transferring games from cassettes to disks. This operation involved hacking the cassette loader, transferring all the data from the cassette to disk, and writing a disk loader. But gradually the emphasis shifted towards writing your own applications. The peak of development of Spectrum game development in Russia occurred in 1995. At this time, the largest number of games were created, and many foreign projects were localized. In subsequent years, the domestic software market for the ZX Spectrum experienced a decline, and as a result, by 2001-2002, only enthusiasts remained among computer users.

Conclusion

The ZX Spectrum is rightfully considered a legendary computer, especially for the entire post-Soviet space. Spectrum left a huge mark on the history of the IT industry, and in Russia it became the first home computer for many. You could even say that the ZX Spectrum era brought up the first generation of domestic IT specialists. Unfortunately, at one time Sinclair decided not to release a successor to Spectrum, focusing on other types of research activities. Nevertheless, the memory of the ZX Spectrum is still alive. To this day you can find enthusiasts experimenting with this truly iconic computer.

Home computer ZX Spectrum- the brainchild of the famous British inventor Clive Sinclair. It is the progenitor of modern devices used by adults and children. The history of the creation of the Spectrum computer is full of interesting facts. It was improved, cloned and modified.

ZX Spectrum - what is it

The eight-bit ZX Spectrum hit the market on April 23, 1982. It was created by a production company Sinclair Research Ltd, founded by Clive Sinclair. The British entrepreneur was developing radio devices for household use. His efforts were crowned with great success. In the 80s, the Spectrum home computer became popular in European countries. In the 90s, its clones spread throughout the territory of the former USSR.

Features of the ZX Spectrum home computer

Spectrum had a number of innovative solutions. Some of them were designed to reduce the cost of the finished product to the coveted 99 pounds sterling, some were due to the development of the electronic database in the eighties:

a TV screen was used as a monitor;
the computer was supplied in two versions - with 16 and 48 kilobytes of RAM;
the BASIC dialect was used as the ZX Spectrum programming language;
the computer loaded in a few seconds;
a household cassette recorder was used as an external storage device;
the first model was equipped with an inexpensive keyboard consisting of 40 rubber keys. The key feature of the keyboard was its versatility;
the first models had one-bit audio output. The built-in speaker was used for this purpose. It was a “squeaker” that beeped rhythmically in games;
the presence of a graphic mode combined with a text one. The main difference from Spectrum’s predecessors is the color image, albeit with some limitations;
joysticks consisting of a handle and a button could be connected to the computer.

The first models of eight-bit devices were in great demand. Thanks to its simplicity, cheapness (less than £100) and abundance of availability, the Spectrum was the ideal home computer.

In the mid-eighties, Soviet craftsmen began to replicate the original computer; they developed analogues based on domestic components. To create the computer, they used a handful of Soviet microcircuits and a Z80 processor. State factories also produced clones. The stores sold Bytes, Impulses, Spectras, Syntheses and Deltas, which were played by thousands of schoolchildren.

Clive Sinclair - a genius of bygone days

Clive Marles Sinclair was born on July 30, 1940. His father and grandfather were engineers. The boy followed suit. In 1962, the Englishman created the Sinclair Radionics company, which produces parts for sound amplifiers and radios. Soon the product range expanded. The company began producing portable televisions and electronic watches.

In 1979 Clive Sinclair has set up a new company Sinclair Research Ltd. In 1980, the first product was released - the Sinclair ZX80 computer. Models were supplied as ready-made devices or kits for assembly. In the second case, the buyer had to independently assemble the components into a single whole.

In 1981 The company launched the ZX81 computer. At first the device was delivered by mail. Later, assembly accessories began to be sold in retail stores. Sales amounted to 400,000 copies.

In 1982 a significant event happened. The "ZX81 Color" device was developed. Later the computer was renamed. The new name ZX Spectrum emphasized the fundamental difference from its predecessor - color images. In the first 17 months, users purchased more than a million devices. Many people affectionately called the computer “Speccy.” The low price was the main advantage thanks to which the Spectrum successfully competed with the Commodore 64 and BBC Micro.

The development of the Western market for the ZX Spectrum is divided into three stages:

1982-1984– there is a quantitative increase in sales. The advent of the home computer caused a boom in the software industry. What was this trend? It's simple: companies and individual enthusiasts were actively involved in writing programs for Spectrum;
1985-1987– the potential of the device was revealed in all its glory. The market was flooded with games of various genres. The developers paid great attention to the plot and sound;
1988-1993– interest in the computer has decreased. The device has become outdated, and users have switched to other systems.

Clive Marles Sinclair sponsored various projects: a flat-screen TV, an electric car, a new model of the Sinclair QL computer. In 1983 he was awarded the title of "Knight of the Royal Order". In 1986, the Englishman ended his career in the computer industry. In 2004, the inventor showed the world a folding bicycle that could easily be assembled and fit into a backpack. In 2010 he announced an electric bicycle.

Types of ZX Spectrum computer and their features

The development of Sinclair Research Ltd did not stand still. Several computer models were presented to users:

ZX Spectrum– a basic model with a rubber keyboard, a household TV was used as a monitor, and a household tape recorder was used as an external memory;
ZX Spectrum+— it appeared on the market in 1984. The device had 48 KB of memory, an updated case and a keyboard with a reset button. The changes to the computer were minor, but it quickly gained popularity and sold well;
ZX Spectrum 128- a model that appeared on the market in 1986. It was developed jointly with distributor Investronica. The features of the new model were as follows: 128 KB of RAM, three-channel sound, improved BASIC editor, compatibility with the digital interface of musical instruments. The distributor adapted the computer to the Spanish market and significantly increased sales.

In 1986, the computer division of Sinclair Research Ltd was bought by a British company Amstrad. This was a profitable acquisition for the electronics manufacturer, because there was one less competitor, and the Spectrums sold well.

After the transfer of rights to produce cars, Amstrad developers created new models:

ZX Spectrum +2– The 1986 device had a spring-loaded keyboard, two joystick ports, and a built-in cassette recorder. Otherwise the computer was identical to its predecessor;
ZX Spectrum +3- in 1987, developers created a computer with a three-inch floppy disk drive instead of a tape recorder. The RAM was mapped to 64 KB of address space. Global changes led to incompatibilities with programs for previous versions of Spectrum - some games did not work on the new machine;
ZX Spectrum +2A– device manufactured in 1987. This model was made on the basis of its predecessor. There were some changes: the number of chips was reduced, and a built-in cassette drive appeared.

Peripherals for Spectrum

The growth in popularity of the ZX Spectrum was facilitated by the release of a large number of devices. Peripheral devices significantly expanded the functionality of the computer. Such devices include:

ZX Printer– a printer that used spark printing technology. The device was connected to the system connector. During the work, black paper with aluminum coating was used. The printer was equipped with a print head that moved in a horizontal plane. The printed line contained 32 characters;
ZX Microdrive– an accessory designed to store information. It was a removable cassette with a looped magnetic tape. Using such a device, it was possible to quickly load and save written programs and data;
Kempston Interface– interface for connecting a joystick;
ZX Interface 1- a special device, the main purpose of which was to expand the capabilities of the Specky. The module was equipped with two network ports. A proprietary protocol was used;
Currah Microspeech– a device for reproducing synthesized speech. It was produced in the form of a cartridge connected to an expansion port;
ZX Interface 2– an external module with connectors for connecting joysticks and a ROM cartridge;
Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum– a percussion machine connected to the system connector of the computer. It played 8 drum samples that were loaded from a cassette. The basic set consisted of several elements: bass drum, open and closed hi-hat, snare drum, handclap, bell.

Reasons for the popularity of the ZX Spectrum

The eight-bit Spectrum is a computer that will probably never be forgotten. The key reason for the popularity of the device is the availability of a huge number of application programs. The program library consists of 25 thousand titles. The collection includes spreadsheets, drawing and 3D modeling tools, and word processors.

In a couple of years, Spectrum has won an audience of millions, since 90% of its software is games. The collection of games on the ZX Spectrum is amazing. For this reason, every gamer finds suitable entertainment for himself. These include 3D Deathchase, Rainbow Islands, RoboCop, Boulder Dash.

Games for Spectrum are still created by enthusiasts living in our country and abroad. Communicators and mobile phones have the ability. The ZX Spectrum winrar computer is the most emulated platform. This is a significant plus, thanks to which the “heart” of the old Specky is still beating!

Today, when everyone has a phone in their pocket, whose capabilities are not much inferior to a computer, it is difficult to imagine that in the 80s, a computer was an 8-bit system with 48 kilobytes of RAM and a 3.5-MHz processor. To work with it, you needed a TV, but the picture resolution was ridiculous by today’s standards, even for phones, 256x192 pixels. However, these were very exciting games, where the lack of spectacular graphics was more than compensated for by the imagination of the players. Game file sizes ranged from 6 to 40 kilobytes, and programmers had to literally save every byte. We invite everyone who remembers those times to return to them for a minute and pay tribute to the games of that era, already gone forever.

Games were then distributed using tape cassettes; there were simply no legal ways to buy a game in the USSR. To work with a computer, you needed a TV and a cassette recorder. Of course, there were only a few branded ZX Spectrum computers in the country, and only those who had the opportunity to buy them abroad. Everyone else bought (or assembled themselves, depending on their skills) computers assembled from a similar component base. Conceptual diagrams called “Leningrad” or “Pentagon”, created by craftsmen, were circulating around.

The process of mastering games deserves a special mention. At first there were no localizations at all. Documentation for games, of course, too. Everything, from the game genre to the controls, had to be mastered at random. By the way, most game genres were created back then. There were no mice or touchpads in those days either. To control games, either a keyboard or a joystick was used. Sometimes a very worthy game was abandoned simply because it was impossible to understand what exactly needed to be done according to its scenario.

Elite

Opening the top ten legendary games is, of course, Elite. The game was invented by Cambridge University students David Braben and Ian Bell in 1982, and its first versions were released in 1984. Porting for the ZX Spectrum occurred in 1985. The genre was a space simulator with elements of economic strategy. The game had complete freedom of player action in a world with 8 galaxies, each of which contained 256 star systems. The game featured 3D wireframe graphics for the first time. This means that the objects were three-dimensional, but were depicted as transparent polygonal figures. The player could travel between star systems, fighting pirates and reselling goods for profit. The resources received can be spent on improving the ship's systems: protection, weapons and various devices, for example, a docking computer or a hyperdrive device for traveling between galaxies. It is believed that the goal of the game was to achieve Elite status, which can be reached by starting with Harmless and going through Mostly Harmless, Poor, Average, Above Average, Competent, Dangerous, Deadly. At the same time, there were branches in the game, depending on the player’s behavior: if he began to rob oncoming merchants, the attitude towards him in the star systems changed and, accordingly, his status changed. The controls involved a completely three-dimensional world, so it was quite complex. You can evaluate the flight from one orbital station to another using this video:

SimCity

It's hard to believe, but the famous city management simulator SimCity also existed for the ZX Spectrum, where it appeared in 1989. The map was very small, of all city communications only roads and power lines were accessible, but the game even had analytics elements with crime levels, environmental pollution, and so on. There was no relief as a class - the entire map was a smooth surface, like a table, on which only lakes made life difficult for the user. But you could play it and get great pleasure from economic success!

Nether Earth

You might be surprised, but Nether Earth is a real-time strategy game. It appeared in 1987, 5 years before Dune II, considered the founder of the genre. The plot of the game is simple - a landing force of a race of Insignians robots lands on Earth, who create their own bases and factories for the production of components for robots. The player is given an original tool - an invulnerable but unarmed flying module, with which the game is controlled. You can create new robots and control them manually. Capturing bases or factories can only be done by robots. They can be given tasks for autonomous actions related to patrolling, military operations or the capture of factories and bases. The game has tactical nuclear charges capable of destroying bases and factories. Due to the lack of game balance and a very small map (4 bases with sets of factories), the winning strategy is calculated quite quickly and consists of a forced march with the most armed robot. It looks like this:

Barbarian

What did all progressive humanity spend before the release of Mortal Kombat in 1992? The correct answer is games like Barbarian from 1987. It could be played either alone (with a computer character) or together (preferably with joysticks). The battle took place on three levels: head, chest, legs. You could use tackles, blocks and kicks. The trademark was a roundhouse kick, in which it was possible, with a successful combination of circumstances, to end the fight with one blow, blowing off the enemy’s head. In this case, the dwarf, who was dragging the body away at the end of the battle, also comically kicked the fallen head.

Renegade

A classic Street Fighting game for the ZX Spectrum, released in 1987. You can play alone or in pairs. According to Wikipedia, this game introduced the basic laws of the beat "em up genre: 4-way movement, the "arm-leg-grab-jump" system, varying degrees of opponents' endurance. The game has the ability to finish off a lying opponent.

Commando

The ZX Spectrum couldn't do without a tactical simulator. At a time when there was no Counter Strike, Metal Gear Solid and Call of Duty, we played Commando. Even then it was clear that the key to victory was maneuver and fire support. Therefore, the character had to continuously move and shoot, abundantly covering everything with grenades. The dynamics in the game are very high even at the first levels, a hitch of 1-2 seconds leads to the inevitable death of the character. See for yourself:

Combat Lynx

Probably, the list of legendary games for the ZX Spectrum would be incomplete without the game Combat Lynx, which is a vivid example of how complex such games could be in terms of scenario and functions. I don’t even know by what miracle my friends and I were able to master it without any documentation. We are talking about controlling a combat helicopter that is capable of carrying a good dozen types of weapons, including mines. Deliver reinforcements to the bases and evacuate the wounded. The game had a three-dimensional terrain, which made it difficult not only to pilot a helicopter (you can easily get into a hill), but also to shoot at ground targets. Aiming was carried out along the crosshair of the sight, projected onto the surface, which also varied depending on the terrain. And if at the initial levels everything was relatively easy, then further maintaining 4 bases, delivering new soldiers there and shooting tanks scurrying here and there, becomes more and more difficult. I couldn’t find any video games for the ZX Spectrum, these are video games for Amstrad computers. The game graphics here are slightly different, they are a little more spectacular, but the gameplay looks exactly the same.

Saboteur

I don’t even know what influenced the popularity of this game more - the difficulty of the task for a saboteur or the fact that the game’s creator, Clive Townsend, chose a ninja warrior as an infiltrator. In the 80s of the last century, the world experienced another surge of interest in Japanese saboteurs, dressed in all black and dashingly throwing shurikens. So, the player’s task in Saboteur is to infiltrate the territory of a guarded facility, steal a floppy disk with data, plant a bomb and manage to evacuate by helicopter. And all this in a limited period of time. How “easy” this task is can be seen in the 30-minute walkthrough video on the highest difficulty level.

Robocop

The film "RoboCop" was one of the brightest science-fiction films of the 80s, so playing with this character was certainly doomed to success. I remember we found the graphics to be very impressive, the character animation very close to what was seen in the film, and the added challenge was that ammo tended to run out and had to be conserved. Inside the game there was a puzzle task with an identikit, which also added variety to the usual street fighting. Still, how little we needed in those years to be happy...

Lode Runner

In conclusion, I would like to remember something extremely simple and fascinating. And the first game that comes to mind is Lode Runner. In the era of arcade games like Pacman, Arkanoid or Space Invaders, this particular game looked easy and difficult at the same time. And you could play it for hours, unlike half the games on this list. You can see this by watching the full video below:

Let's try to run the ZX Spectrum on the Mars Rover2 board...

In the early eighties, the British company Sinclair Research Ltd released the ZX Spectrum 48 home computer, the main advantage of which, like previous models such as the Sinclair ZX80 and Sinclair ZX81, was its low cost. Thanks to its low cost, as well as the abundance of various clone systems, the ZX Spectrum gained enormous popularity, and in the territory of the former Soviet Union the computer even received cult status. Interest in Speccy began to wane in the second half of the nineties, when users began to move en masse to more advanced personal computers, but many of those who saw the heyday of the ZX Spectrum still remember loading “strips” of game splash pictures from audio cassettes . Namely games - although the ZX Spectrum was not a powerful platform, and its capabilities in terms of graphics output were very limited, many video games were released for the computer, some of which could keep you glued to the monitor for long hours.

This is what the original ZX Spectrum looked like from the outside...

...and inside

The ZX Spectrum was based on a Zilog Z80 processor with a frequency of 3.5 MHz. Subsequently, computer modifications appeared, equipped with a special button that overclocked the CPU to 7 and even 14 MHz. Also, the original version of the ZX Spectrum could have 16 or 48 KB of RAM, but later a model with 128 KB of memory was released. Interestingly, the width of the address bus did not allow Specky to work directly with such a volume of RAM, and “crutches” appeared in the computer architecture in the form of page addressing.

By the way, the name “Spectrum” was not chosen by chance - it was supposed to emphasize the possibility of outputting a color image. The palette included 8 colors: blue, red, violet, green, cyan, yellow, white and black. Each color could have one of two brightness levels (this did not apply to black), so in total the ZX Spectrum could reproduce up to 15 different colors and shades. In the computer's RAM, as much as 6912 bytes of memory were allocated for video data. Of these, 6144 bytes were intended for drawing a picture with a resolution of 256 x 192 pixels (plus the “border”, which, however, did not take up memory), and another 768 bytes determined the attributes of the “familiarity” measuring 8 by 8 pixels - these were the “background” colors and "pattern", brightness and blinking. The ZX Spectrum ROM included a BASIC language interpreter (more precisely, Sinclair BASIC), as well as simple implementations of interfaces for text output, arithmetic calculations, keyboard, tape recorder, printer and other peripherals.

The ZX Spectrum palette has only 15 colors

During the heyday of the popularity of the ZX Spectrum, there were countless of its “clones” - computers that had nothing to do with the original brainchild of Sinclair Research Ltd, but used an element base similar in functionality and, accordingly, software. Some of the clones were assembled by radio amateurs from available parts, which led to various simplifications; others, on the contrary, were subjected to all sorts of upgrades that made it possible to expand the capabilities of working with memory or graphics.

Who said the ZX Spectrum isn't good for entertainment?

In the new millennium, Spectrum was revived in a variety of software emulators, which in recent years have reached tablets and smartphones. But what stands out among emulators are ZX Spectrum implementations on FPGAs, of which, it should be noted, there are also many in nature. Why not create your own version of the famous computer for the board Mars rover2?

As the basis for the project, I decided to take the original educational material authored by Ewgeny7, which explains in simple terms various aspects of the VHDL language using the example of the actual creation of the ZX Spectrum. This implementation is simple and relies on the T80 core (the VHDL incarnation of Z80), but assumes the use of an SRAM chip as RAM. The Mars Rover 2 board has SDRAM memory installed, which somewhat complicates the porting task, and the second part of this article will be devoted to solving these difficulties.

From the previous material, which talks about the main features of the architectural SDRAM memory device, we know that this type of RAM is characterized by various delays, and reading or writing data is usually a whole sequence of actions performed by a special controller. I decided to combat the delays by increasing the clock frequency supplied to the memory chip relative to the frequency of the Spectrum itself: if the latter is content with 14 MHz (and this is the “pixel clock” used to output video data, for the processor itself the frequency is eventually reduced to 3.5 MHz) , then the memory operates at 70 MHz. This allows us to hope that during the time between the moment when the processor requests data from RAM and the moment when it tries to read this data from its input bus, the controller will have time to perform all the necessary operations and extract the required portion of information from the SDRAM chip.

After the necessary “substitution”, compiling the project and flashing it into the board, Mars Rover 2 pleased me not with a gray screen with a laconic signature of the ZX Spectrum developer company, but with an ugly paste of colors from the entire poor palette of this computer. Analysis of the problem showed that the calculations performed in the previous paragraph are not entirely accurate: if the processor really does not notice delays, then the video data does not have time to be read from memory even at high frequencies. This is due to the fact that an extremely short “window” is allocated for reading video data, during which the processor is idle and, as it were, disconnected from the common memory bus. Thus, attempts to increase the memory frequency did not produce the desired effect, which means that the solution to the problem must be approached from a different angle.

First, let's take a break and look at how the ZX Spectrum memory works. All data exists in a single address space. Its first part - 16384 bytes (0000h-4000h) - is occupied by ROM, followed by 6912 bytes of video data memory (4001h-5B00h), and the remaining range of addresses is already used directly for RAM.

After initializing the ROM in the FPGA, there is still enough free memory on the Mars Rover2 board, which I decided to use to store video data. To do this, using the MegaWizard Plug-In Manager, a dual-port RAM module of 8192 bytes was created - this is more than enough to accommodate all the video data. The main module of the project had to be expanded with new pins, which will be the interface between the Spectrum and video memory. In general, the top module of the project looks like this (click on the image to enlarge):

To control the new pins we needed to add some logic. So, the output data video_wr_data will be taken from the processor output bus only when the processor requests a write to an address in the range 4001h-5B00h. Under the same conditions the signal will be activated video_wr_en, allowing data to be written to memory, and, accordingly, video_wr_adr, which is responsible for transmitting the video memory data address, will take the value of the lower 13 bits of the processor address bus if it still accesses the same range. When video data is required to be displayed on the screen, a signal will be activated video_rd_en, allowing reading from memory. Of course, the data itself will be taken from the input video_rd_data.

Another attempt to compile the project and flash it into the board, and we can see the following picture on the screen:

ZX Spectrum on the Mars Rover2 board has booted up and is waiting for commands to be entered!

The source data for this project can be downloaded from the link:

By the way, the project has the potential for further improvements: you can try replacing the ROM with firmware from a more advanced Spectrum model (an appropriate image with a .hex or .mif extension is required), which will allow, for example, to work with a larger amount of RAM; add sound output and the ability to download programs from external devices.

This concludes the article. If the material is interesting, I will try to return to the topic in the near future and implement some improvements for the Spectrum. As always, questions, feedback and complaints can be left in the comments.

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Comments

1 #35 aamor 06/30/2019 09:29

Quote:

Each color could have one of two brightness levels (this did not apply to black), so in total the ZX Spectrum could reproduce up to 15 different colors and shades.

It was spreading. But perhaps not in all models and emulators (some emulators do not have bright blue). In the ZXSpin and EmuZWin emulators, it is possible to adjust the desired palette level. In the programs themselves, a bright black color was assumed. Still, it is worth improving emulators so that the palette includes as many as 16 colors.

2 #18 Chaosorg 03/26/2015 13:43

I quote gameuser:

The computer has outlived its usefulness.

Oppa. Yoo. Yeh...

Spectrum - childhood. Childhood. It is immortal. Immortal. It just wrinkles, dries, and is forgotten. But we like it, although... it's shrinking...

Green trees, blue sky, pulse of existence, uv...
The smell of rosin, Sveta on the entrance, Lena on the first course, Ira on the stream, Juno (this also happens)...

We know the Spectrum. I can touch everything with precision - right down to the transistor, resistor, and other real hardware bullshit.

And the software is the same...

Everyone noticed - the exam is about proprietary APIs - why? - , give open source, web, javascript, shaders

Everyone is yearning for something understandable - that’s what we’re moving towards...